Rembrandt etchings on oriental papers: papers in the collection of the National Gallery of Victoria
Introduction
From at least 1647 onwards, Rembrandt executed many of his prints on papers of oriental origin.(1) While his European papers have been the subject of intense scrutiny,(2) the oriental papers remain somewhat neglected. It is hoped that this article will make some contribution in this area.
Print scholars have traditionally divided oriental papers into three categories: China, Japan and India.(3) The seven oriental papers used for prints by Rembrandt in the National Gallery of Victoria collection exhibit characteristics associated with China and Japan papers.
The terms China and Japan, though widely used, are essentially rather subjective, referring to the appearance of a paper, and not necessarily to its place of origin. The following characteristics are associated with Rembrandt's 'China' papers: they are generally thin, and when viewed in transmitted light they reveal the bamboo or reed screen pattern imparted by the papermaking mould on which they were formed; in colour they vary from white and greyish white to ivory. The 'Japan' papers, by comparison, are thicker and are often referred to as 'vellums'. In colour, they range from pale buff, and gold, to ivory. Frequently smoother in appearance than western papers, when viewed in transmitted light they do not generally reveal the screen pattern of the papermaking mould on which they were formed.
The composition and origin of these papers have long been matters of speculation. Recourse to historical references has often confused rather than clarified the issues.(4) The most authoritative study of the oriental papers remains that conducted by George Biörklund in 1968.(5) After examining the fibres from a number of these papers, Biörklund concluded that they were made up purely of gampi fibres and were Japanese in origin.(6)
Biörklund does not discuss China papers in any depth, although he does refer to a 'nearly white paper with a pale, silvery tone and perfectly smooth surface' used in etchings after 1654, a paper he also believed to be composed of gampi.(7) Biörklund in fact rejected the proposition that any of Rembrandt's papers may have come from China, because of the supposedly low quality of Chinese papers at that time, and because of the political instability in the country.(8)
Biörklund also points to the fascinating trading relationship between the Netherlands and Japan during Rembrandt's lifetime. From 1639 until 1854 the Dutch were the only Europeans permitted to enter and live in Japan. They were, however, restricted to the small, artificial island of Deshima at Nagasaki, receiving annual visits of two to three vessels.(9)
Remarkably, following an examination of Dutch East India Company records, Biörklund was able to identify two records that actually named Japanese paper as a cargo: the first an invoice of the ship "De Swaen" dated October 1st 1643 for two casks of Japanese paper'; and the second 'in a memoire [of 6 November 1644] of merchandise to be delivered by the Japanese "both for the Netherlands and for India", 3000 sheets of Japanese paper'.(10)
The assumption that most, if not all, of Rembrandt's oriental papers are composed entirely of gampi fibres and are probably of Japanese origin is often repeated in the literature.(11) China cannot however be ruled out as a source of some of the papers. While all Europeans but the Dutch were excluded from Japan after 1639, the Chinese continued to trade there, having warehouses and a compound not far from Deshima.(12) It should also be remembered that between 1624 and 1661 the Dutch occupied Taiwan, a strategic location for trade, and for piracy.(13)
In view of the little recent attention given to Rembrandt's oriental papers, and because of the often repeated generalizations associated with them, in early 1997 it was decided that a careful examination of the seven papers represented in the National Gallery of Victoria collection would be timely in the lead-up to the exhibition Rembrandt: A Genius and His Impact, of October that year. This article documents that examination, and its findings.
REMBRANDT Harmensz. van Rijn
Dutch 1606–69
Woman Bathing Her Feet in a Brook 1658
Etching (B.200)
sheet 16.4 x 8.6 cm, plate 15.8 x 8.0 cm
Felton Bequest 1958
